arXiv:2605.29042v1 Announce Type: cross Abstract: Human coordination often relies on the ability to influence the beliefs of others through strategic action. In multi-agent reinforcement learning, opponent shaping attempts to replicate this influence, though existing methods typically operate within an opponent's parameter, policy, or value space. Meanwhile, belief-manipulation techniques in hidden-role games often rely on hard-coded objectives, such as deception or belief saturation. We propose Differentiable Belief-based Opponent Shaping (D-BOS), a first-order method that treats each observe
Source: arXiv cs.LG — read the full report at the original publisher.